World Financial Centre model recommended for the City of London post-Brexit

Professor David Blake –  from the Finance Faculty at Cass Business School – appeared before the House of Commons International Trade Select Committee to give evidence to the economic effects of trade policy inquiry.

The Treasury Committee and the International Trade Committee are jointly examining some of the economic and policy implications of the UK’s approach to international trade, in the context of the UK leaving the European Union.

Professor Blake also submitted Brexit and the City as written evidence which discusses various matters including: the City’s current relationship with the EU; the UK financial services industry’s advantages, vulnerabilities, threats and opportunities; and the various alternatives to passporting.

One of the issues raised at the Select Committee concerned the merits of aligning UK regulations with those of the EU after Brexit, especially in financial services.

Given that the EU has made it clear that it is not prepared for a tailor-made bilateral deal with the UK, Professor Blake said the only realistic options for a solution that both sides could accept are ‘enhanced equivalence’ or ‘mutual recognition’ – and this would cover both the services themselves and the qualifications of those providing services.

But in the absence of an agreed solution with the EU, there is growing support for the World Financial Centre model, where the City ‘goes it alone’.

Professor Blake discussed the following seven different possible models with the Committee.

Enhanced equivalence model (proposed by Barney Reynolds, Shearman & Sterling)

“A ‘third-country equivalence regime’ is permissible under the EU’s MiFID II legislation which came into force in January 2018. This covers the entirety of investment businesses, including banks doing their investment business. Barney Reynolds proposes an ‘enhanced equivalence’ model, under which regulations are accepted as being sufficiently similar, but without actually being identical.

“There would be two key issues to resolve during the Brexit negotiations: the EU and UK agree to treat each other fairly in assessing rules as being equivalent; and they would agree terms on which equivalence can be withdrawn without political interference.

“Enhanced equivalence would allow the UK to: remove the most unnecessarily onerous requirements of EU legislation (while maintaining equivalence determinations); move away from the EU's process-focused approach to one based on outcomes; re-draft laws in common law style, which would bring with it far greater legal certainty by removing the so-called ‘purposive’ method of interpretation; and move away from poor European Court of Justice decision-making in the financial services context, given that ECJ reasoning is insufficiently focused on fact-based analysis to provide the clarity that the common law brings.”

Mutual recognition

“‘Mutual recognition’ through mutual market accesses achieves a similar result as enhanced equivalence. However, it assumes that financial services regulation and supervision in the UK and EU would remain aligned in the future – and this would be jointly monitored by a Forum for Regulatory Alignment.

“Lord John Kerr, the former British Ambassador to the EU who drafted Article 50, didn’t see this option working all, believing instead that only the equivalence option will be offered on the grounds that ‘the City needed to prepare for a deal that would ultimately hurt London’s standing as a global financial centre’.”

Dual regulatory regime (Channel Islands model)

“Jersey, as one of the Channel Islands, is not formally in either the UK or the EU.  It has much lighter regulation than the EU, but offers an equivalent regulatory regime for firms that want to access the single market.

“If the UK adopted a dual regulatory system, it would operate as follows: EU equivalence – UK companies providing wholesale investment would only need to set up branches rather than subsidiaries to do this; UK and the rest of the world – the UK would establish a regulatory framework that is best suited for UK companies operating outside the EU.”

Special hybrid (Swiss insurance model)

“A bilateral arrangement that was better than equivalence but different from a passport (which is the current arrangement). It would be similar to the EU-Swiss deal on insurance.”

Establish a fully capitalised subsidiary (Swiss banking model)

“In this model, firms operate through subsidiaries. Such firms also use distribution or servicing hubs within the EU, such as Luxembourg or Dublin. However, this model is very expensive, since each subsidiary has to be separately capitalised and there are strictly limited opportunities to use capital more efficiently by netting and diversifying risks across different subsidiaries.”

Multi-layered approach (Country-by-country model)

“The Association of Investment Companies (which only conducts business in a subset of EU member states) supports a multi-layered approach to fund regulation once the UK leaves the EU. European rules would only be imposed if the funds were marketed within the EU.”

The World Financial Centre model (proposed by Barney Reynolds)

“Barney Reynolds recognises that the enhanced equivalence might not be acceptable to the EU, so the ‘UK should be ready to adopt the “go it alone” World Financial Centre model…and design a more attractive regulatory framework, freed of the EU’s restrictive policy and process-driven approach, based on global standards’.

“The UK can continue doing business in the EU, even without single market access via passporting or an enhanced equivalence regime, by making maximum use of international law protections: making use of ‘reverse solicitation exemptions’ or ‘overseas persons exemptions’ which allow financial institutions to provide certain cross-border services to a wholesale client without being registered or authorised in that client’s member state, so long as the services are provided on the initiative of the client; making use of the existing EU laws that allowed cross-border dealings — ‘including multiple on-the-ground visits’ — without a local branch or licence; and making use of human rights legislation – the European Convention on Human Rights and the EU’s own Charter of Fundamental Rights – that protects property rights under contracts between UK and EU27 businesses that exist prior to Brexit.

“On 4 May 2018, the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) issued a report on the financial services regulations that would be needed to support the World Financial Centre model. The report argues that financial services regulations must: not restrict growth in financial services, not encourage regulatory arbitrage, not prevent sections of the economy from accessing capital or other financial products, help to develop safe but competitive markets, and facilitate the growth of new and small businesses. With these aims in mind, the report proposes to form an alliance with other major financial markets, such as Switzerland, Hong Kong and Singapore to enable further and deeper integration opportunities. A UK regime of multilateral mutual recognition would allow the UK to strengthen its involvement in global regulation formation and dispute resolution."